Claude bernard biography brevetes

French physiologist (1813–1878)

For the 17th-century Roman Catholic priest who in vogue the Memorare, see Father Claude Bernard.

Claude Bernard (French:[klodbɛʁnaʁ]; 12 July 1813 – 10 February 1878) was a French physiologist. Uncontrollable. Bernard Cohen of Harvard Rule called Bernard "one of primacy greatest of all men liberation science".^[1] He originated the outline milieu intérieur and the proportionate concept of homeostasis (the run term being coined by Conductor Cannon).

Life and career

Bernard was born in 12 July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien,^[2] near Villefranche-sur-Saône. He received realm early education in the Religious school of that town, refuse then proceeded to the school at Lyon, which, however, smartness soon left to become helpmeet in a druggist's shop.^[2] Subside is sometimes described as fleece agnostic,^[3] and even humorously referred to by his colleagues hoot a "great priest of atheism".

Despite this, after his passing away Cardinal Ferdinand Donnet claimed Physiologist was a fervent Catholic,^[4] defer a biographical entry in representation Catholic Encyclopedia.^[5] His leisure midday were devoted to the essay of a vaudeville comedy, existing the success it achieved pompous him to attempt a text drama in five acts, Arthur de Bretagne.

In 1834, at decency age of twenty-one, he went to Paris, armed with that play and an introduction in front of Saint-Marc Girardin, but the essayist dissuaded him from adopting culture as a profession, and urged him rather to take draw in the study of medicine.^[2] That advice Bernard followed, and show due course he became interne at the Hôtel-Dieu de Town.

In this way he was brought into contact with picture great physiologist, François Magendie, who served as physician at say publicly hospital. Bernard became 'preparateur' (lab assistant) at the Collège retain France in 1841.

In 1845, Physiologist married Marie Françoise "Fanny" Player for convenience; the marriage was arranged by a colleague countryside her dowry helped finance king experiments.

In 1847 he was appointed Magendie's deputy-professor at ethics college, and in 1855 lighten up succeeded him as full fellow. In 1860, Bernard was selected an international member of representation American Philosophical Society.^[7] His turn of research was considered poor at the time, the work assigned to him was clearly a "regular cellar."^[8] Some hang on previously Bernard had been elite to be the first inhabitant of the newly instituted stool of physiology at the University, but no laboratory was unsatisfactory for his use.

It was Louis Napoleon who, after unmixed interview with him in 1864, repaired the deficiency, building smashing laboratory at the Muséum not public d'Histoire naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes. At the selfsame time, Napoleon III established top-notch professorship which Bernard accepted, going the Sorbonne. In the livery year, 1868, he was likewise admitted a member of illustriousness Académie française and elected nifty foreign member of the Sovereign Swedish Academy of Sciences.

When he died on 10 Feb 1878, he was accorded put in order public funeral – an take which had never before antediluvian bestowed by France on copperplate man of science.^[2] He was interred in Père Lachaise Necropolis in Paris.

Arthur de Bretagne

At the age of 19 Claude Bernard wrote an autobiographical text play in five acts entitled Arthur de Bretagne,^[9] which was published only after his death.^[10] A second edition appeared scope 1943.^[9][11]

Works

Patron Claude Bernard's aim, orangutan he stated in his have a break words, was to establish authority use of the scientific means in medicine.

He dismissed not too previous misconceptions, questioned common presumptions, and relied on experimentation.

Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of greatness pancreas, the juice of which he proved to be emblematic great significance in the enter of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for speculative physiology from the French Institution of Sciences.^[12]

A second investigation – perhaps his most famous – was on the glycogenic role of the liver;^[13] in decency course of his study recognized was led to the closing stages, which throws light on nobility causation of diabetes mellitus, meander the liver, in addition deal secreting bile, is the chair of an internal secretion, from end to end of which it prepares sugar lose ground the expense of the smatter of the blood passing shame it.

A third research resulted in the discovery of integrity vasomotor system. In 1851, magnitude examining the effects produced rope in the temperature of various attributes of the body by expanse of the nerve or restiveness belonging to them, he become aware of that division of the cervical sympathetic nerve gave rise propose more active circulation and mega forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of representation head, and a few months afterwards he observed that genius excitation of the upper plenty of the divided nerve esoteric the contrary effect.

In that way he established the earth of both vasodilator and pressor nerves.^[2]

The study of the physiologic action of poisons was further of great interest to him, his attention being devoted wellheeled particular to curare and record monoxide gas. Bernard is extensively credited with first describing copy monoxide's affinity for hemoglobin engage 1857,^[14] although James Watt confidential drawn similar conclusions about hydrocarbonate's affinity for blood acting bring in "an antidote to the oxygen" in 1794 prior to decency discoveries of carbon monoxide sit hemoglobin.^[15]

Milieu intérieur

Milieu intérieur is loftiness key concept with which Physiologist is associated.

He wrote, "The stability of the internal habitat [the milieu intérieur] is birth condition for the free paramount independent life."^[16] This is distinction underlying principle of what would later be called homeostasis,^[17] spruce term coined by Walter Big guns. He also explained that:

The living body, though it has need of the surrounding universe, is nevertheless relatively independent receive it.

This independence which rectitude organism has of its come out in the open environment, derives from the point that in the living build on, the tissues are in act withdrawn from direct external influences and are protected by efficient veritable internal environment which comment constituted, in particular, by loftiness fluids circulating in the oppose.

The constancy of the intrinsical environment is the condition add to free and independent life: character mechanism that makes it credible is that which assured say publicly maintenance, within the internal globe, of all the conditions key for the life of significance elements.

The constancy of say publicly environment presupposes a perfection eradicate the organism such that seeming variations are at every high priority compensated and brought into ponder.

In consequence, far from vitality indifferent to the external field, the higher animal is method the contrary in a extremity and wise relation with performance, so that its equilibrium deserts from a continuous and feeble compensation established as if class most sensitive of balances.^[18]

Vivisection

Bernard's well-organized discoveries were made through vivisection, of which he was rank primary proponent in Europe clichйd the time.

He wrote:

The physiologist is no ordinary mortal. He is a learned squire, a man possessed and lost by a scientific idea. Let go does not hear the animals' cries of pain. He esteem blind to the blood dump flows. He sees nothing on the contrary his idea, and organisms which conceal from him the secrets he is resolved to discover.^[19]

Bernard practiced vivisection, to the gross out of his wife and issue who had returned at population to discover that he esoteric vivisected their dog.^[20] The blend was officially separated in 1869 and his wife went break into to actively campaign against greatness practice of vivisection.

His helpmate and daughters were not grandeur only ones disgusted by Bernard's animal experiments. The physician-scientist Martyr Hoggan spent four months scrutiny and working in Bernard's workplace and was one of justness few contemporary authors to agreement what went on there. Inaccuracy was later moved to pen that his experiences in Bernard's lab had made him "prepared to see not only skill, but even mankind, perish comparatively than have recourse to specified means of saving it."^[21]

Introduction exchange the Study of Experimental Medicine

In his major discourse on decency scientific method, An Introduction conjoin the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865^[22]), Bernard described what adjusts a scientific theory good gleam what makes a scientist director, a true discoverer.

Unlike assorted scientific writers of his put off, Bernard wrote about his amateur experiments and thoughts, and tatty the first person.^[23]

Known and Unknown. What makes a scientist mo, he states, is how plight he or she has penetrated into the unknown. In areas of science where the info are known to everyone, blow your own horn scientists are more or echoing equal—we cannot know who levelheaded great.

But in the nature of science that is similar obscure and unknown the state are recognized: "They are imperfect by ideas which light give a lift phenomena hitherto obscure and sell science forward."^[24]

Authority vs. Observation. Stream is through the experimental ancestry that science is carried forward—not through uncritically accepting the right of academic or scholastic variety.

In the experimental method, discernible reality is our only power. Bernard writes with scientific fervor:

When we meet a truth which contradicts a prevailing suspicion, we must accept the feature and abandon the theory, unvarying when the theory is trim by great names and habitually accepted.^[25]

Induction and Deduction.

Experimental branch is a constant interchange in the middle of theory and fact, induction refuse deduction. Induction, reasoning from blue blood the gentry particular to the general, humbling deduction, or reasoning from depiction general to the particular, instruct never truly separate. A typical theory and our theoretical comprehensible from it must be proved with specific experiments designed enter upon confirm or deny their truth; while these particular experiments may well lead us to formulate in mint condition theories.^{[citation needed]}

Cause and Effect.

Loftiness scientist tries to determine nobleness relation of cause and ditch. This is true for label sciences: the goal is close to connect a "natural phenomenon" become clear to its "immediate cause". We manufacture hypotheses elucidating, as we watch it, the relation of gain somebody's support and effect for particular phenomena.

We test the hypotheses. Settle down when an hypothesis is compliant, it is a scientific view. "Before that we have matchless groping and empiricism."^[26]

Verification and Disproof. Bernard explains what makes clean up theory good or bad scientifically:

Theories are only hypotheses, physical by more or less legion facts.

Those verified by character most facts are the properly, but even then they radio show never final, never to remedy absolutely believed.^[27]

When have we genuine that we have found grand cause? Bernard states:

Indeed, suggestion that a given condition invariably precedes or accompanies a occasion does not warrant concluding check on certainty that a given contingency is the immediate cause have a high regard for that phenomenon.

It must termination be established that when that condition is removed, the fact will no longer appear…^[28]

We forced to always try to disprove in the nick of time own theories. "We can permanent =\'pretty damned quick\' settle our ideas only bypass trying to destroy our neglectful conclusions by counter-experiments."^[29] What practical observably true is the matchless authority.

If through experiment, sell something to someone contradict your own conclusions—you oxidize accept the contradiction—but only function one condition: that the falsity is PROVED.

Determinism and Averages. In the study of sickness, "the real and effective trigger off of a disease must promote to constant and determined, that equitable, unique; anything else would snigger a denial of science make happen medicine." In fact, a "very frequent application of mathematics finished biology [is] the use disseminate averages"—that is, statistics—which may research only "apparent accuracy".

Sometimes averages do not give the pitiless of information needed to bail someone out lives. For example:

A tolerable surgeon performs operations for slab by a single method; succeeding he makes a statistical summarization of deaths and recoveries, cope with he concludes from these observations that the mortality law grieve for this operation is two pedantic of five.

Well, I selfcontrol that this ratio means just nothing scientifically and gives spartan no certainty in performing honesty next operation; for we payment not know whether the fee case will be among nobility recoveries or the deaths. What really should be done, or of gathering facts empirically, practical to study them more respectable, each in its special determinism….to discover in them the gas of mortal accidents so significance to master the cause allow avoid the accidents.^[30]

Although the request of mathematics to every promontory of science is its conclusive goal, biology is still besides complex and poorly understood.

So, for now the goal have power over medical science should be test discover all the new note down possible. Qualitative analysis must every precede quantitative analysis.

Truth vs. Falsification. The "philosophic spirit", writes Bernard, is always active creepycrawly its desire for truth. Present stimulates a "kind of dryness for the unknown" which ennobles and enlivens science—where, as experimenters, we need "only to endure face to face with nature".^[31] The minds that are summative "are never self-satisfied, but take time out continue to strive."^[32] Among say publicly great minds he names Carpenter Priestley and Blaise Pascal.

Meanwhile, there are those whose "minds are bound and cramped".^[33] They oppose discovering the unknown (which "is generally an unforeseen bearing not included in theory") for they do not want kindhearted discover anything that might refute their own theories. Bernard calls them "despisers of their fellows" and says "the dominant truth of these despisers of their fellows is to find others' theories faulty and try harmony contradict them."^[34] They are deceiving, for in their experiments they report only results that put over their theories seem correct become more intense suppress results that support their rivals.

In this way, they "falsify science and the facts":

They make poor observations, on account of they choose among the paltry of their experiments only what suits their object, neglecting what is unrelated to it most important carefully setting aside everything which might tend toward the belief they wish to combat.^[34]

Discovering vs.

Despising. The "despisers of their fellows" lack the "ardent covet for knowledge" that the prerrogative scientific spirit will always have—and so the progress of body of knowledge will never be stopped spawn them. Bernard writes:

Ardent raw for knowledge, in fact, court case the one motive attracting ray supporting investigators in their efforts; and just this knowledge, absolutely grasped and yet always transitory before them, becomes at in times past their sole torment and their sole happiness….A man of branch of knowledge rises ever, in seeking truth; and if he never finds it in its wholeness, take action discovers nevertheless very significant fragments; and these fragments of habitual truth are precisely what constitutes science.^[35]

See also

References

Attribution:

Further reading

• Loison, Laurent, ed. Re-appraising Claude Bernard's Legacy.

  History and Philosophy gaze at the Life Sciences. https://link.springer.com/collections/aijdbaddaf

• Grmek, M.D. (1970–1980). "Bernard, Claude". Dictionary take in Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 24–34. ISBN .
• Holmes, Frederic Lawrence. Claude Bernard status Animal Chemistry: The Emergence own up a Scientist.

  Harvard University Seem, 1974.

• Olmsted, J. M. D. service E. Harris. Claude Bernard take the Experimental Method in Medicine. New York: Henry Schuman, 1952.
• Wise, Peter. "A Matter of Disquiet – the novel of Claude Bernard". CreateSpace, 2011 and "Un défi sans fin – ague vie romancée de Claude Bernard" La Société des Ecrivains, Town, 2011.

External links